CHORDS PROGRESSING

 Chord progressions

 

 

 

 

Terminology         

Bridge

Cadence

Changes

Constant structure

Double tonic

Notation (Roman-numeral)

Rewrite rules

Turnaround

 

 

A Concise Glossary Report (≈ 500 words)

Understanding how harmonic events are named and organized is essential for composers, improvisers, and analysts alike. Below is a focused survey of eight frequently encountered terms—drawn mainly from classical and jazz theory—that describe relationships among chords and large‑scale form.

 

Bridge

In popular‑song and jazz forms (AABA, ABAC, 32‑bar standards), the bridge—also called the middle eight—provides contrast to the primary “A” section. It often modulates, introduces new melodic material, or changes the rhythmic density before returning to the refrain. Because the ear resets its sense of tonic during the bridge, the eventual reprise of the original key feels refreshed.

Cadence

A cadence is the musical punctuation that ends a phrase, period, or movement. Classical theory distinguishes types by harmonic motion and voice‑leading: authentic (V–I), half (ends on V), plagal (IV–I), and deceptive (V–vi). In jazz, a ii–V–I progression is functionally cadential. Cadences balance expectation and closure; altering them is a primary way to create tension or extend form.

Changes

“Changes” is musicians’ shorthand for a tune’s chord progression, especially in jazz. Knowing the changes lets improvisers outline harmony in real time. Classic examples include the twelve‑bar blues, “Rhythm changes” (derived from Gershwin’s I Got Rhythm), and the Coltrane cycle. Players often substitute or reharmonize changes to add color while preserving structural landmarks.

Constant Structure

A constant structure progression keeps the chord quality identical (all major‑7ths, all dominant‑7ths, etc.) while moving the root by varying intervals. Because functional cues are minimized, the ear latches onto the uniform sonority itself. Wayne Shorter’s “E.S.P.” strings together major‑7 chords a third apart; Herbie Hancock’s “Maiden Voyage” does the same with suspended dominants. The technique creates harmonic ambiguity yet clear color consistency.

Double Tonic

A double‑tonic system alternates between two tonal centers—often a whole tone or minor third apart—so frequently that each feels like “home.” Scottish and Appalachian folk songs, for instance, rock between G and F major, never settling. In classical repertoire, Schubert’s “Der Doppelgänger” juxtaposes B minor and its lowered second, while Debussy’s “La cathédrale engloutie” shifts between C‑major and B‑minor triads. The listener experiences perpetual departure and return without a single, fixed tonic.

Notation (Roman‑Numeral)

Roman‑numeral notation abstracts harmony by labeling chords according to scale degree and quality (I, ii°, V7, etc.). Upper‑case denotes major; lower‑case, minor; added figures show sevenths, inversions, or alterations. Because the symbols are key‑agnostic, they expose functional relationships: V7–I is identical in C major (G7→C) and E‑flat major (B♭7→E♭). Jazz educators often combine Roman numerals with chord symbols to teach substitution principles.

Rewrite Rules

Borrowed from linguistics and computer science, rewrite rules in music describe how one structure can be systematically transformed into another. In Schenkerian analysis, for example, a middleground passing progression may be “rewritten” as an embellished I–V–I framework. Generative theories (Lerdahl & Jackendoff, Temperley) use formal rules to derive surface chords from deep‑structure prototypes, offering algorithmic explanations for why certain progressions sound “grammatical.”

Turnaround

A turnaround is a short cadential passage—usually two to four measures—that leads from the end of a section back to the beginning or to a new section. The archetypal jazz turnaround is I–vi–ii–V (or its tritone‑sub variant I–♭III7–♭VI7–♭II7) resolving to I. Blues musicians use V–IV–I–V at the end of each chorus. Turnarounds create forward momentum, set up solos, and offer fertile ground for reharmonization.

 

Interconnectedness
These terms are not isolated: a bridge often contains a double‑tonic scheme, cadences punctuate changes, and a constant‑structure vamp may precede a turnaround. Roman‑numeral notation and rewrite rules supply the analytical language that reveals these links. Mastering the vocabulary therefore equips musicians to compose, analyze, and improvise with greater intentionality.

Would you like annotated score examples that illustrate any of these concepts in practice?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

By number of chords          

 

Three     

I–IV–V–Iii–V–I turnaround

V–IV–I turnaround

♭VII–V7 cadence

Backdoor progression

Eight-bar blues

Twelve-bar blues ("Bird" changes)

Sixteen-bar blues

Passamezzo moderno

 

 

A Compact Harmonic Survey (≈ 500 words)

 

I–IV–V–iii–V–I Turnaround

This six‑chord loop embellishes the classic I–vi–ii–V jazz turnaround by swapping vi for its relative major (IV) and inserting a tonicized iii. In C major the sequence is C maj7 – F maj7 – G7 – E min7 – G7 – C maj7. Because IV precedes V, the ear momentarily hears a plagal gesture before the dominant, while iii functions as a bright, leading‑tone‑inflected substitute for vi. The double appearance of V heightens expectancy, making this turnaround ideal for tag endings and vamping into solos.

V–IV–I Turnaround

Common in country, gospel, and early rock, the descending‑fifths expectation (V→I) is delayed by a retrograde step to IV. In G major: D7 – C – G. IV acts as a “subdominant cushion,” softening the dominant’s pull and producing a satisfying Amen‑style resolution. Players often decorate the move with secondary dominants (D7–C7–G) or bass walks, giving the simple schema great stylistic flexibility.

♭VII–V⁷ Cadence

Borrowed from Mixolydian modality and the blues, this cadence substitutes the diatonic V–I with a plagal‑flavored ♭VII–V7 that still resolves to I. In A major the pattern is G – E7 → A. Because ♭VII shares two tones with V/V, it supplies a fresh but familiar pre‑dominant sonority. Rock staples such as “Sweet Home Alabama” exploit the move (D–C–G in G) to evoke rootsy color while retaining forward motion.

Backdoor Progression

The “backdoor” approaches tonic from its subdominant side: ii – ♭VII⁷ – I (or simply ♭VII⁷ – I). In C: D min7 – B♭7 – C maj7. B♭7 is the tritone substitute of V7 (it shares the same tritone E–B♭ as G7) but resolves downward by a whole step rather than up a fourth, giving a smoky, jazz‑soul flavor. Tunes like “Someday My Prince Will Come” and Steely Dan’s “Josie” feature the progression to sidestep the obvious ii–V–I.

Eight‑Bar Blues

A compressed form of the 12‑bar blues, often structured I – I – IV – IV | I – V – I – V. Examples include Willie Dixon’s “Key to the Highway” and many early gospel shouts. The shorter span intensifies lyrical delivery and suits faster tempos, while leaving room for turnaround embellishments (e.g., I–vi–ii–V) in the final two bars.

Twelve‑Bar Blues (“Bird” Changes)

Charlie Parker reharmonized the standard I–IV–V 12‑bar grid with rapid ii–V cycles and chromatic approach chords, yielding the bebop “Bird” changes. In B‑flat:
1‑2 B♭7 | E♭7
3‑4 B♭7 | Bdim7
5‑6 Fmin7 – B♭7 | E♭7 – E°7
7‑8 B♭7 | G7
9‑10 Cmin7 – F7 |
11‑12 B♭7 – F7 ||
The substitutions add functional density and chromatic voice‑leading, challenging improvisers with swift key‑center shifts while preserving the chorus‑based form of the blues.

Sixteen‑Bar Blues

Expanding the frame to four four‑bar phrases, the 16‑bar blues often follows I – I – I – I | IV – IV – I – I | V – IV – I – V. Fats Domino’s “Blueberry Hill” and many New Orleans R&B tunes use this layout, allowing more melodic development and lyrical storytelling without sacrificing the blues’ call‑and‑response essence.

Passamezzo Moderno

A Renaissance ground bass, the passamezzo moderno cycles I – IV – I–V | I – IV – I–V (with variants adding vi or ii). In G: G – C – G – D | G – C – G – D. Popular across 16th‑century Europe for dances and vocal settings, it anticipates later pop progressions like I–V–vi–IV by anchoring melody over a repeating harmonic ostinato. Modern folk revivals sometimes recast the pattern, proving its enduring appeal.

 

Interrelations
Whether medieval dance bass or bebop cadence, each scheme manipulates expectation through dominant delay, chromatic color, or cyclic repetition. Mastering these templates equips musicians to reharmonize standards, craft fresh turnarounds, and trace the lineage connecting blues, jazz, rock, and even Renaissance dance music.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Four       

 

'50s progression

Andalusian cadence

Folía

vi–ii–V–I

Montgomery-Ward bridge

Passamezzo anticoI–V–vi–IV (list)

IV△7–V7–iii7–vi

Romanesca

Tadd Dameron turnaround

 

 

A Short Guide to Ten Recurrent Harmonic Schemes (≈ 500 words)

’50s progression (I–vi–IV–V)
Doo‑wop ballads such as “Earth Angel” and “Stand by Me” circulate through tonic, its relative minor, subdominant, and dominant in four equal bars. Because the bass outlines a descending third (I→vi) followed by an ascending fourth (IV→V), the loop feels simultaneously circular and goal‑directed, giving singers space for lyrical melisma.

Andalusian cadence (i–♭VII–♭VI–V)
Rooted in flamenco’s Phrygian mode, this descending tetrachord (e.g., Am–G–F–E) supplies dramatic tension by reserving the only leading tone for the final dominant. Classical composers—from Ravel’s Boléro to Bizet’s Carmen—appropriate the pattern to evoke “Spanish” color, while rock acts like the Animals (“House of the Rising Sun”) adapt it to minor‑key blues.

Folía
A late‑Renaissance/Baroque ground bass whose 16‑bar template alternates tonic and dominant over a stepwise descending upper line (Dm–A7–Dm–C–F–C–Dm–A7). Composers from Corelli to Liszt spin variations above its inexorable march, making the Folía an early showcase of theme‑and‑variation technique and a direct ancestor of the modern passacaglia.

vi–ii–V–I
This “minor up‑by‑fourths” turnaround starts on the tonic’s relative minor, then follows the circle of fifths back home. In C major: Am7–Dm7–G7–Cmaj7. Jazz players like the progression because it disguises the cadence’s arrival: the initial minor chord sounds consonant, yet the ear is already two steps into functional motion.

Montgomery‑Ward bridge
Named after the mail‑order catalog whose jingle used it, this eight‑bar bridge cycles dominants by descending fifths: III7–VI7–II7–V7 (each for two bars). Inserted between two A sections of a 32‑bar tune, it momentarily tonicizes the relative minor (III) before the circle pulls the harmony inexorably back to the original key—think “Honeysuckle Rose” or “Satin Doll.”

Passamezzo antico
A 16th‑century Italian dance ground: I–♭VII–I–V | I–♭VII–I–V. Its modal flavor comes from the ♭VII, while the repeated tonic–dominant axis invites improvisatory diminution. Lute books spread the scheme across Europe, where it blended with local folk strains and eventually informed early American fiddle tunes.

I–V–vi–IV (Axis progression)
The pop cousin of the passamezzo antico replaces ♭VII with the diatonic V and inserts vi for bittersweet color. From “Let It Be” and “No Woman, No Cry” to “Someone Like You,” hundreds of hits recycle the four‑chord loop, proving its uncanny ability to undergird both jubilant anthems and introspective laments.

IV△7–V7–iii7–vi
A sleek, jazz‑inflected variant of the descending‑thirds sequence: in G major, Cmaj7–D7–Bm7–Em7. IV△7 acts as a predominant with Lydian brightness; V7 supplies dominant pull; iii7 and vi minor prolong tonic function while nudging the bass downward by thirds. The chain is a favorite for pre‑choruses and modulating vamps in R&B and city‑pop.

Romanesca
Closely related to the passamezzo antico but compressed to four chords: I–♭VII–I–V (often with an added 6/4 embellishment). Its hallmark is a melodic descent 6‑5‑4‑3 over the bass 1‑7‑1‑5, creating bittersweet suspensions. The romanesca underpins Monteverdi madrigals, Purcell grounds, and even the Beatles’ “Dear Prudence.”

Tadd Dameron turnaround
Bebop arranger Tadd Dameron’s signature tag (Cmaj7–E♭maj7–A♭maj7–D♭maj7 | Dm7–G7–Cmaj7) approaches tonic “through the back door” by moving in major‑thirds, then snaps into a conventional ii–V–I. The chromatic mediant chain adds lush color while preserving voice‑leading economy, and has become a staple reharmonization device for jazz standards like “Lady Bird” and “Half Nelson.”

Across five centuries, these progressions illustrate how composers balance repetition and surprise—whether in a Renaissance dance, a doo‑wop ballad, or a bebop tag, familiar patterns keep listeners oriented while fresh twists keep the story moving.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

By name

 

50s

Andalusian cadence

Backdoor

"Bird" changes

Borrowed (contrafact)

Circle

Coltrane changes

Omnibus

Passamezzo antico

Passamezzo moderno

Ragtime

Royal road progression

"Rhythm" changes

Stomp

Tadd-Dameron

Montgomery

Ward bridge

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Compact Glossary of Recurrent Progressions and Devices (≈ 500 words)

’50s progression – The doo‑wop loop I–vi–IV–V (e.g., C–Am–F–G) underpins countless 1950s ballads. The descending third then ascending fourth bass motion feels simultaneously circular and goal‑directed, giving singers an endlessly repeatable harmonic canvas.

Andalusian cadence – A Phrygian‑flavored minor descent i–♭VII–♭VI–V (Am–G–F–E) common to flamenco, Baroque ostinati, and rock. By withholding the leading tone until the final dominant, it generates heightened tension and “Spanish” color.

Backdoor progression – Jazz device approaching tonic from the subdominant side: ii – ♭VII⁷ – I (or simply ♭VII⁷ – I). In C, Dm7–B♭7–Cmaj7 substitutes B♭7 for G7, using the same tritone to create a soulful, downward whole‑step resolution.

“Bird” changes – Charlie Parker’s bebop reharmonization of the twelve‑bar blues, saturated with ii–V chains, diminished passing chords, and secondary dominants. The density challenges improvisers while retaining the blues’ chorus structure.

Borrowed (contrafact) – A contrafact is a new melody composed over the chord changes of an existing tune, “borrowing” harmony while avoiding copyright issues. Bebop classics such as “Ornithology” (over “How High the Moon”) exemplify the practice.

Circle (of fifths) progression – Any sequence that moves roots by descending fifths or ascending fourths, e.g., vi–ii–V–I or extended chains like III7–VI7–II7–V7. The pattern maximizes voice‑leading smoothness and functional momentum.

Coltrane changes – John Coltrane’s harmonic lattice of key centers a major third apart (e.g., B–G–E♭) linked by dominant chords, famously heard in “Giant Steps.” Rapid tonal shifts create virtuosic improvisational demands and a sense of perpetual modulation.

Omnibus progression – A 19th‑century chromatic sequence in which soprano and bass lines move contrary‑wise through all twelve semitones while inner voices cycle dominant sevenths. It functions more as display than functional cadence, later inspiring film‑score chromaticism.

Passamezzo antico – Renaissance ground bass I–♭VII–I–V | I–♭VII–I–V, modal in flavor and favored for dances and improvisatory diminutions. Its tonic‑dominant axis and lowered seventh foreshadow folk and rock progressions.

Passamezzo moderno – The “modern” 16th‑century counterpart: I–IV–I–V | I–IV–I–V. Replacing ♭VII with IV yields a more diatonic, major‑mode feel and anticipates countless pop loops based on I–IV–V motion.

Ragtime progression – Classic ragtime strains often rest on I–vi–ii–V (or extended circle‑of‑fifths chains) in sixteen‑bar phrases. The jaunty syncopation rides atop functional harmony borrowed from late‑19th‑century marches.

Royal‑road progression – A J‑pop staple: IV△7–V/vi–iii7–vi (in C: Fmaj7–G/B–Em7–Am7). Descending thirds in the bass and Lydian brightness on IV create an anthemic, bittersweet sweep ideal for soaring choruses.

“Rhythm” changes – The 32‑bar AABA form derived from Gershwin’s “I Got Rhythm.” A section: | B♭maj7 G7 | Cm7 F7 | etc.; bridge: a dominant cycle III7–VI7–II7–V7. Jazz musicians treat it as a harmonic playground for contrafacts and substitutions.

Stomp progression – Named after Jelly Roll Morton’s “King Porter Stomp,” this eight‑bar strain descends in thirds (I–VI7–II7–V7) before cadencing, combining blues coloration with ragtime stride energy.

Tadd‑Dameron turnaround – Signature tag of arranger Tadd Dameron: major‑third cycle I–♭III△7–♭VI△7–♭II△7 | ii–V–I (C–E♭–A♭–D♭ | Dm7–G7–C). Chromatic mediants add lush color before the conventional ii–V–I resolution.

Montgomery‑Ward bridge – An eight‑bar bridge (III7–VI7–II7–V7, two bars each) named after a mail‑order jingle. It tonicizes the relative minor (III) then rides the circle of fifths back to the home key, supplying bright, forward motion between A sections.

Together these patterns trace a lineage from Renaissance dance basses to bebop virtuosity and modern pop hooks. Mastering their voice‑leading logic equips musicians to recognize, reharmonize, and creatively extend the harmonic vocabulary across styles and centuries.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Related   

 

Aeolian harmony

Chaconne

Ground bass (Pachelbel's Canon)

Irregular resolution

Galant Schemata

 

 

A 500‑Word Primer on Five Harmonic Concepts

Aeolian harmony
When composers center their progressions on the natural‑minor (Aeolian) mode rather than the major/relative minor pair, they create Aeolian harmony. Characteristic chords are i, ♭VII, VI, and iv—none of which contain a raised leading tone. A typical pop loop like Am–G–F–E (i–♭VII–VI–V) illustrates the sound: dark yet driving, with the dominant’s pull weakened because scale degree ♯7 is absent. Film scorers exploit Aeolian harmony to evoke brooding landscapes (“Game of Thrones” main title), while Renaissance and folk traditions use it to preserve modal color before common‑practice tonality fully codified V–i relationships.

Chaconne
Originating in 17‑century Spain and spreading through France and Italy, the chaconne is a set of continuous variations over a repeating harmonic pattern, usually in slow triple meter. Unlike its cousin the passacaglia (which emphasizes a fixed bass line), a chaconne may vary the bass but retains a stable harmonic skeleton—often a descending tetrachord. J. S. Bach’s monumental solo‑violin Chaconne in D minor (from BWV 1004) exemplifies the form: 64 variations spin out above a four‑measure loop that outlines i–V–i–V, enriching it with contrapuntal and registral fireworks while the ground anchors the listener’s sense of inevitability.

Ground bass (Pachelbel’s Canon)
A ground bass is any short, repeating bass line that supports a series of upper‑voice variations. Johann Pachelbel’s Canon in D popularized perhaps the most famous ground: D–A–B–F♯–G–D–G–A (I–V–vi–iii–IV–I–IV–V). Over 28 statements of this eight‑bar ostinato, three violins engage in strict canon, creating a tapestry of suspensions and sequential figures while the basso continuo quietly reiterates its pattern. The progression’s smooth step‑wise bass and functional clarity have made it a template for modern pop ballads (“Let It Be,” “Basket Case”) and a classroom exemplar of how a simple ground can sustain extended variation.

Irregular resolution
In common‑practice harmony, certain resolutions are “regular”: V → I, vii° → I, IV → I, and so forth. Irregular resolution describes any departure from these expectations—either by moving to an unexpected chord or by altering voice‑leading norms. Examples include the deceptive cadence (V → vi), the resolution of a secondary dominant to a chord other than its tonicized goal, or a German augmented‑sixth moving directly to I. Romantic composers prized such surprises for expressive effect: Wagner often resolves dominant sevenths downward by third, and jazz writers routinely let tritone‑substitute dominants slide by half‑step to unrelated targets. Understanding irregular resolutions helps analysts trace tension and release in music that stretches, but does not break, tonal grammar.

Galant schemata
The mid‑18th‑century galant style—embraced by composers like J. C. Bach and early Haydn—employed stock melodic‑harmonic patterns called schemata. Musicologists Gjerdingen and others have catalogued dozens: the Prinner (IV–I⁶–V–I with soprano 6–5–4–3), the Romanesca (I–♭VII–I–V with upper‑voice 6–5–4–3), and the Fonte (sequence of falling fifths with soprano 3–2–1–7). These schemata functioned like rhetorical figures, instantly recognizable to 18‑century listeners and easy for apprentices to combine into longer phrases. Today they provide analysts and performers with a toolkit for understanding phrase rhetoric, improvising in historical styles, and explaining why Classical‑era melodies sound simultaneously fresh and familiar.

Interconnections
All five concepts revolve around the play between repetition and deviation. Aeolian harmony and irregular resolutions color the basic major‑minor system; chaconnes and ground basses rely on relentless repetition to frame invention; galant schemata codify the era’s preferred mini‑progressions. Together they illustrate how Western composers balance predictability and surprise, grounding listeners in familiar patterns while inviting them into new expressive territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of chord progressions

 

Degrees and functions of the diatonic scale

I / i

(Major/Minor)      ii / iio     iii / III   IV / iv    V / v       vi / VI    viio / VII

 

Tonic

 

Supertonic - Sp

 

Mediant - Dp, Tkp, tP, [D](Sp)

 

Subdominant

 

Dominant

 

Submediant -

Tp, sP, tCp

 

Leading tone - D̸7

 

Subtonic - dP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A 500‑Word Guide to the Seven Diatonic Scale‑Degree Functions and Their Riemannian Labels

Western tonal music names each scale degree for its melodic position (tonic, supertonic, etc.) and for its harmonic role inside the key. German theorist Hugo Riemann (late‑19th c.) captured these harmonic roles with a compact set of functional abbreviations. Capital letters mark the three pillars—T (tonic), S (subdominant), D (dominant)—while suffixes p (Parallel) and kp (Counter‑parallel) point to closely related chords a third away. Lower‑case letters flag minor quality. The chart below links the familiar scale‑degree names to their Riemannian nicknames and explains the most common chords that realize each function.

 

1. Tonic  (T)

Scale‑degree 1 is the tonal center; it provides rest and closure.

Harmonies: major or minor I, tonic 6/4 pedal, tonic 7th.

In Riemann’s system T has no suffix because it is the reference point; its relatives (Tp, Tkp) appear on other degrees.

2. Supertonic  (Sp)

Scale‑degree 2 lies above the tonic (“super‑”) and usually supports the ii or iiø7 chord.

Riemann calls it Sp (Subdominant‑parallel): in C major, D‑minor is a minor triad a third below S (F‑major).

Function: predominant—it prepares the dominant through circle‑of‑fifths motion or stepwise voice‑leading.

3. Mediant  (Dp, Tkp, tP, D)

Scale‑degree 3 is midway (“mediant”) between tonic and dominant.

In major keys the iii chord (E‑minor in C) is Riemann’s Dp (Dominant‑parallel) because it shares two tones with the dominant G‑major.

When the mediant is major (e.g., E‑major in C minor, or III in Aeolian modal borrowing) it brightens the tonic and can serve as Tkp (Tonic counter‑parallel).

In minor keys, tP marks the relative major (III) as the tonic’s parallel.

First‑inversion iii6 can act like a passing dominant to IV; Riemann notes this as D—a dominant sonority en route to the subdominant.

4. Subdominant  (S)

Scale‑degree 4 underpins the IV or ii6 chord.

Function: a predominant that moves outward (IV → V) or inward (IV → I, “plagal” cadence).

Because S sits a perfect fifth below the tonic, it balances the dominant’s pull from above.

5. Dominant  (D)

Scale‑degree 5 generates the primary tension‑chord V(7) or its substitutes.

It contains the leading tone and scale‑degree 2, whose half‑step and whole‑step resolve respectively to 1 and 3.

All other dominant‑family symbols (Dp, D̸7) derive from or point toward this fulcrum.

6. Submediant  (Tp, sP, tCp)

Scale‑degree 6 is a third below tonic; the diatonic vi (or VI in minor) is the Tp (Tonic‑parallel), sharing two common tones with I.

When VI moves to IV it can behave as sP (Subdominant‑parallel); when it brightens to major in a minor key it may be labeled tCp (Tonic counter‑parallel in minor).

Functionally, the submediant can prolong tonic, substitute for subdominant, or launch deceptive cadences (V → vi).

7. Leading Tone  (D̸7)

Scale‑degree 7 lies a half‑step below tonic and “leads” upward.

The fully diminished vii°7 chord is a rootless dominant: Riemann writes D̸7 (“Dominant without its root”) to stress its interchangeable role with V7.

Because every note of vii°7 needs resolution, it is the most unstable diatonic harmony.

8. Subtonic  (dP)

In modal or minor contexts where the seventh degree is lowered (♭7), the resulting ♭VII chord no longer leads to tonic but often slides down a whole step.

Riemann tags it dP (minor Dominant‑parallel): it parallels V but with lowered leading tone, yielding Mixolydian and blues colors.

Common in rock progressions (e.g., G–F–C in C major) and in the Andalusian cadence.

 

Takeaway
Traditional scale‑degree names locate a note within the ladder; Riemannian labels reveal how the chord built on that note behaves inside the key. Together they let analysts describe both the geography and the grammar of tonal harmony in a single, economical code.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Music theory lists

Chords Progressions

Compositions Atonal

featuring Andalusian cadences

Homotonal

Major/minor

Just

Polytonal

Quarter tone

Twelve-tone and serial

Whole tone scale

Genres

Intervals 5-limit justMeantone

Jazz contrafacts

Turkish Makams

Set classes

Scales and modes

Teachers

Theorists

Tone rows and series

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A 500‑Word Survey of Diverse Concepts in Music Theory and Practice

Chord Progressions – Repeating successions of chords create harmonic momentum and signal form. From the classical I–IV–V–I to jazz’s ii–V–I and pop’s I–V–vi–IV, progressions provide the framework on which melodies, grooves, and improvisations ride.

Compositions Atonal featuring Andalusian cadences – Although the Andalusian cadence (i–♭VII–♭VI–V) is rooted in tonal Phrygian minor, modern composers occasionally quote it in otherwise atonal textures to evoke flamenco color before dissolving back into pitch‑class free writing. Works by Mauricio Kagel and Paco de Lucía’s collaborators show how a modal cliché can punctuate an atonal environment without re‑establishing functional tonality.

Homotonal – A multi‑movement piece is homotonal when every movement shares the same tonic (e.g., Haydn’s Op. 33 No. 2 in E‑flat). The device promotes unity without thematic repetition.

Major/Minor – The major scale (ionian) and its relative natural, harmonic, and melodic minors anchor Western common‑practice harmony, defining relationships such as dominant (V) and subdominant (IV) and shaping expectations of resolution.

Just – Just intonation tunes intervals to whole‑number frequency ratios (e.g., 3:2 for a pure fifth), maximizing consonance but limiting modulation. Renaissance vocal music and contemporary microtonalists exploit its beat‑less sonorities.

Polytonal – Simultaneous use of two or more keys, as in Milhaud’s Saudades do Brasil or Stravinsky’s Petrushka. Polytonality layers distinct tonal centers to create kaleidoscopic clashes and expanded harmonic palettes.

Quarter Tone – Dividing the octave into 24 equal parts yields quarter‑tone intervals (50 ¢ each). Composers such as Alois Hába and jazz trumpeter Ibrahim Maalouf use them for subtle inflections and new harmonic resources.

Twelve‑Tone and Serial – Arnold Schoenberg’s twelve‑tone method orders all twelve chromatic notes into a tone row that governs pitch organization through permutations (prime, inversion, retrograde). Later serialists extended ordered sets to rhythm, dynamics, and timbre, seeking structural coherence in post‑tonal music.

Whole‑Tone Scale – Six equally spaced tones (C–D–E–F♯–G♯–A♯) erase leading‑tone gravity, yielding dreamy ambiguity. Debussy’s “Voiles” and Thelonious Monk’s “Four in One” showcase its floating quality.

Genres – Stylistic categories such as baroque chaconne, bebop, EDM, or Turkish fasil shape expectations of form, timbre, and performance practice, influencing how theoretical devices are deployed.

Intervals, 5‑Limit Just, Meantone – In 5‑limit tuning, only the prime factors 2, 3, 5 define ratios (e.g., 5:4 major third). Meantone tempers fifths slightly narrow so that thirds become purer, the backbone of Renaissance keyboard temperament.

Jazz Contrafacts – New melodies written over pre‑existing chord progressions, e.g., Charlie Parker’s “Donna Lee” (over “Indiana”). Contrafacts let improvisers explore fresh themes atop familiar harmonic maps.

Turkish Makams – Modal systems combining specific scalar segments (cins) and characteristic melodic pathways (seyir). Makam theory integrates microtonal intervals and emotional affect; for instance, Hicaz features a neutral second and distinctive descending phrases.

Set Classes – In pitch‑class set theory, unordered collections (e.g., {0,1,4}) abstract intervals and facilitate analysis of atonal music. Allen Forte’s catalogue numbers sets by intervallic content, revealing structural kinships.

Scales and Modes – Ordered pitch collections—from church modes to raga thāts—supply melodic vocabulary and govern permissible cadences, ornaments, and expressive nuances.

Teachers – Pedagogues such as Nadia Boulanger, Heinrich Schenker, and Barry Harris transmit theoretical frameworks and shape generations of composers and performers.

Theorists – Scholars like Rameau, Helmholtz, Schoenberg, and Ligeti formalize, critique, and expand our understanding of musical structure, acoustics, and perception.

Tone Rows and Series – Ordered sequences of elements (pitch, rhythm, dynamics) serve as generative material in serial and post‑serial composition, ensuring unity while permitting manifold surface variation.

Together, these concepts illustrate the breadth of music theory—from the bedrock of major/minor tonality and just intonation to the adventurous realms of microtonality, serialism, and non‑Western modal systems—showing how composers and analysts continually reimagine the possibilities of organized sound.